What Works, Schools Without Drugs
United States Department of Education
1992
CONTENTS
WHAT CAN WE DO?
CHILDREN AND DRUGS
Extent of Alcohol and Other Drug Use
Fact Sheet: Drugs and Dependence
How Drug Use Develops
Fact Sheet: Youth and Alcohol
Effects of Drug Use
Fact Sheet: Cocaine: Crack
Drug Use and Learning
A PLAN FOR ACTION
What Parents Can Do
Instilling Responsibility
Supervising Activities
Fact Sheet: Signs of Drug Use
Recognizing Drug Use
What Schools Can Do
Assessing the Problem
Enforcing Policy Seeing Policy
Teaching About Drug Prevention
Fact Sheet: Tips for Selecting Drug Prevention Materials
Enlisting the Community's Help
Fact Sheet: Legal Questions on Search and Seizure
Fact Sheet: Legal Questions on Suspension and Expulsion
What Students Can Do
Learning the Facts
Helping to Fight Drug Use
What Com
Children and Drugs
Americans have consistently identified drug use as being among the
top problems confronting the nation's schools. Yet many do not recognize
the degree to which their own children, their own schools, and their own
communities are at risk.
Research shows that drug use among children is 10 times more
prevalent than parents suspect. In addition, many students know that
their parents do not recognize the extent of drug use; as a result, some
young people believe that they can use drugs with impunity.
School administrators and teachers often are unaware that some of
their students are using and selling drugs on school property. As Ralph
Egers, former superintendent of schools in South Portland, Maine, put
it, "We'd like to think that our kids don't have this problem, but the
brightest kid from the best family in the community could have the
problem."
The facts are:
* Drug use is not confined to young people in certain geographic
areas or from particular economic backgrounds; drug use affects
young people throughout the nation.
* Drugs are a serious problem not only among high school students but
among middle and elementary school students as well.
* Heavy drinking, defined as five or more drinks on one occasion, is
reported by 30 percent of high school seniors, and more than
one-half are occasional users of alcohol.
* All illegal drugs are dangerous; there is no such thing as safe or
responsible use of illegal drugs.
* Although drug trafficking is controlled by adults, the immediate
source of drugs for most students is other students.
Continuing misconceptions about the drug problem stand in the way
of corrective action. The following section outlines the nature and
extent of the problem and summaries the latest research on the effects
of drugs on students and schools.
Figure 1
Percentage of 6th Graders Who Report Peer Pressure to Try Drugs
[Graphic Omitted]
Source: 1987 Weekly Reader Survey on Drugs and Drinking
Figure 2
Percentage of High School Seniors Who Have Used Cocaine
[Graphic Omitted]
Source: Institute for Social Research 1991
Extent of Alcohol and Other Drug Use
Drug use is widespread among American schoolchildren. Although a
national study of high school seniors in 1991 shows that drug use among
young people is declining, the figures remain unacceptably high (see
Figure 2). The United States continues to have the highest rate of
teenage drug use of any nation in the industrialized world. Forty-four
percent of high school seniors have tried an illicit drug by the time
they graduate. Alcohol is the most widely used drug. By their senior
year, 88 percent of students in the class of 1991 had used alcohol; 78
percent had used alcohol in the past year and 54 percent had used it in
the month prior to the survey. Thirty percent of seniors surveyed
reported at least one occasion of heavy drinking in the two weeks prior
to the survey--an occasion in which they had five or more drinks in a
row. Twenty-four percent of 1991 seniors reported using marijuana in the
past year, and 14 percent said they had used it at least once in the
previous month. Three and one-half percent of seniors indicated that
they had used cocaine in the past year. Three percent of seniors had
used crack, and 1.5 percent had used it within the last year.
The drug problem affects all types of students. All regions and all
types of communities show high levels of drug use. Thirty percent of
1990 high school seniors in nonmetropolitan areas reported illicit drug
use in the previous year, while the rate for seniors in large
metropolitan areas was 33 percent. Although higher proportions of males
are involved in illicit drug use, especially heavy drug use, the gap
between the sexes is closing. The extent to which high school seniors
reported having used illicit drugs is higher for whites than for blacks.
Initial use of alcohol and other drugs occurs at an increasingly
early age. Nineteen percent of seniors re
* Unhealthy appearance, indifference to hygiene and grooming.
* Bloodshot eyes, dilated pupils.
Dramatic Changes in School Performance
* Marked downturn in student's grades--not just from C's to F's, but
from A's to B's and C's; assignments not completed.
* Increased absenteeism or tardiness.
Changes in Behavior
* Chronic dishonesty (lying, stealing, cheating); trouble with the
police.
* Changes in friends, evasiveness in talking about new ones.
* Possession of large amounts of money.
* Increasing and inappropriate anger, hostility, irritability,
secretiveness.
* Reduced motivation, energy, self-discipline, self-esteem.
* Diminished interest in extracurricular activities and hobbies.
Parents
Recognizing Drug Use
Recommendation #3:
Be knowledgeable about drugs and signs of drug use. When symptoms
are observed, respond promptly.
Parents are in the best position to recognize early signs of drug
use in their children. To inform and involve themselves, parents should
take the following steps:
* Learn about the extent of the drug problem in their community and
in their children's schools.
* Learn how to recognize signs of drug use.
* Meet with parents of their children's friends or classmates about
the drug problem at their school. Establish a means of sharing
information to determine which children are using drugs and who is
supplying them.
Parents who suspect their children are using drugs often must deal
with their own emotions of anger, resentment, and guilt. Frequently they
deny the evidence and postpone confronting their children. Yet, the
earlier a drug problem is detected and faced, the less difficult it is
to overcome. If parents suspect that their children are using drugs,
they should take the following steps:
* Devise a plan of action. Consult with school officials and other
parents.
* Discuss their suspicions with their children in a calm, objective
manner. Do not confront a child while he or she is under the
influence of alcohol or other drugs.
* Impose disciplinary measures that help remove the child from those
circumstances where drug use might occur.
* Seek advice and assistance from drug treatment professionals and
from a parent group. (For further information, consult the
Resources Section, pages 61-81.)
WHAT SCHOOLS CAN DO
* Determine the extent and character of alcohol and other drug use
and monitor that use regularly.
* Establish clear and specific rules regarding alcohol and other drug
use that include strong corrective actions.
* Enforce established policies against alcohol and other drug use
fairly and consistently. Ensure adequate security measures to
eliminate drugs from school premises and school functions.
* Implement a comprehensive drug prevention curriculum for
kindergarten through grade 12, teaching that drug use is wrong and
harmful, and supporting and strengthening resistance to drugs.
* Reach out to the community for support and assistance in making the
school's anti-drug policy and program work. Develop collaborative
arrangements in which school personnel, parents, school boards, law
enforcement officers, treatment organizations, and private groups
can work together to provide necessary resources.
Schools
Assessing the Problem
Recommendation #4:
Determine the extent and character of alcohol and other drug use
and monitor that use regularly.
School personnel should be informed about the extent of drugs in
their school. School boards, superintendents, and local public officials
should support school administrators in their efforts to assess the
extent of the drug problem and to combat it.
To guide and evaluate effective drug prevention efforts, schools
need to take the following actions:
* Conduct anonymous surveys of students and school personnel and
consult with local law enforcement officials to identify the extent
of the drug problem.
* Bring together school personnel to identify areas where drugs are
being used and sold.
* Meet with parents to help determine the nature and extent of drug
use.
* Maintain records on drug use and sale in the school over time, for
use in evaluating and improving prevention efforts. In addition to
self-reported drug use patterns, records may include information on
drug-related arrests and school discipline problems.
* Inform the community, in straightforward language, of the results
of the school's assessment of the drug problem.
Roncalli High School
Manitowoc, Wisconsin
Before Roncalli, a Catholic coed high school, initiated its no-use
drug policy in the early 1980s, it was not uncommon after athletic
events to see a parking lot full of empty beer cans and to hear reports
of students charged with driving while intoxicated.
After an alcohol-related teenage traffic fatality jolted the
community, a district-wide survey was taken that showed widespread drug
and alcohol use by high school students. The Roncalli student body was
no exception. In response, an action plan was developed by students,
parents, and the community that calls for referral and treatment on the
first offense for any student found in the possession of or under the
influence of alcohol or drugs at any Roncalli High School activity. The
consequence for a second offense is dismissal.
Since this program's inception 13 years ago, only one student has
declined referral and treatment choosing instead to leave school.
Tracking surveys each year help the faculty and students to monitor
progress in achieving the school's drug-free goal.
Positive peer pressure and team spirit are important ingredients in
Roncalli's anti-drug program. The student group RADD (Roncalli Against
Drinking and Drugs) operates as an arm of the Student Senate to organize
and coordinate drug-free activities through the year. More than 90
percent of the 650 students at Roncalli High participate in RADD's
activities that include dances, open gym, Trivial Pursuit contests,
Pictionary night, video screenings, and other after-school events.
A Peer Helpers program matches all 120 incoming freshmen with peers
who provide information throughout the year on Roncalli's anti-drug
policies and program.
Concerned Persons Groups also meet at Roncalli to offer extra peer
support to students who have a friend or family member using drugs or
who may need a place to talk and find assistance in confidence. The
groups meet during the school day on alternating schedules so that all
may have the option to attend.
Parents, too, are actively involved in the school program. The
Roncalli Parents Communication Network has commitments from more than 60
percent of the Roncalli parents to keep their homes drug-free and to be
present when students visit.
Schools
Setting Policy
Recommendation #5:
Establish clear and specific rules regarding alcohol and other drug
use that include strong corrective actions.
School policies should clearly establish that drug use, possession,
and sale on the school grounds and at school functions will not be
tolerated. These policies should apply both to students and to school
personnel, and may include prevention, intervention, treatment, and
disciplinary measures.
School policies should have the following characteristics:
* Specify what constitutes a drug offense by defining (1) illegal
substances and paraphernalia; (2) the area of the school's
jurisdiction, for example, the school property, its surroundings,
and all school-related events, such as proms and football games;
and (3) the types of violations (drug possession, use, and sale).
* State the consequences for violating school policy; punitive action
should be linked to referral for treatment and counseling. Measures
that schools have found effective in dealing with first-time
offenders include the following:
-- A required meeting of parents and the student with school
officials, concluding with a contract signed by the student and
parents in which they both acknowledge a rug problem and the
student agrees to stop using and to participate in drug
counseling or a rehabilitation program.
-- Suspension, assignment to an alternative school, in-school
suspension, after-school or Saturday detention with close
supervision, and demanding academic assignments.
-- Referral to a drug treatment expert or counselor.
-- Notification of police.
Penalties for repeat offenders and for sellers may include
expulsion, legal action, and referral for treatment.
* Describe procedures for handling violations, including the
following:
-- Legal issues associated with disciplinary actions
(confidentiality, due process, and search and seizure) and their
application.
-- Circumstances under which incidents should be reported and the
responsibilities and procedures for reporting incidents,
including the identification of the authorities to be contacted.
-- Procedures for notifying parents when their child is suspected
of using drugs or is caught with drugs.
-- Procedures for notifying police.
* Enlist legal counsel to ensure that all policy is in compliance
with applicable Federal, State, and local laws.
* Build community support for the policy. Hold open meetings where
views can be aired and differences resolved.
Schools
Enforcing Policy
Recommendation #6:
Enforce established policies against alcohol and other drug use
fairly and consistently. Ensure adequate security measures to eliminate
drugs from school premises and school functions.
Ensure that everyone understands the policy and the procedures that
will be followed in case of infractions. Make copies of the school
policy available to all parents, teachers, and students, and publicize
the policy throughout the school and community.
Impose strict security measures to bar access to intruders and to
prohibit student drug trafficking. Enforcement policies should
correspond to the severity of the school's drug problem. For example:
* Officials can require students to carry hall passes, supervise
school grounds and hallways, and secure assistance of law
enforcement officials, particularly to help monitor areas around
the school.
* For a severe drug problem, officials can use security personnel to
monitor closely all school areas where drug sales and use are known
to occur; issue mandatory identification badges for school staff
and students; request the assistance of local police to help stop
drug dealing; and, depending on applicable law, develop a policy
that permits periodic searches of student lockers.
Review enforcement practices regularly to ensure that penalties are
uniformly and fairly applied.
* Consider implementing an alternative program for students who have
been suspended for drug use or possession. Some districts have
developed off-campus programs to enable suspended students to
continue their education in a more tightly structured environment.
These programs may be offered during the day or in the evening, and
may offer counseling as well as an academic curriculum. Other
districts have successfully used a probationary alternative that
combined a short-term in-school suspension with requirements for
drug testing and participation in support groups as a condition of
returning to the classroom.
Lawrenceville Middle School
Lawrenceville, Georgia
Ten years ago, Lawrenceville, Georgia, was a rural community
outside Atlanta. Today it is a full-fledged suburb, and one of the
nation's fastest-growing. Lawrenceville Middle School, responding to
rapid changes in the community, did not wait for a crisis to begin
thinking about the drug education needs of its 1100 students. It
conducted a survey in 1981 to use as a benchmark to measure drug-free
progress in subsequent years and to help define an appropriate
program--the first in Gwinnett County--for sixth-, seventh- and
eighth-graders.
The Lawrenceville program emphasizes five prevention strategies:
education, life and social skills, healthy alternatives, risk factor
reduction, and environmental change. While annual surveys help the
faculty and parents assess its effectiveness, they are not the only way
they measure effectiveness. Regular informal assessments and day-today
faculty observation help to fine tune the program from year to year and
suggest any immediate changes required. A case in point: when teachers
began to observe an increase in tobacco use, particularly smokeless
tobacco use, they formed a committee that included parents and
administrators and came up with a plan to include more information in
the curriculum on the harmful effects of tobacco and more up-to-date
materials in the media center. They also decided to implement a
no-tobacco use policy for the school staff. The following year,
incidents of student tobacco use decreased dramatically.
Parents, students, and teachers attribute much of Lawrenceville's
drug education success to its alternative program, STRIDE,
(Student/Teacher Resource Institute for Drug Education), a unique
concept that has captured the attention--and drug-free pledges--of more
than 80 percent of Lawrenceville's students.
STRIDE's leadership team--composed of seventh-and
eighth-graders-meets during the summer to plan activities for the
upcoming year. A program featuring 10 to 12 major events is outlined at
the summer planning session. STRIDE leaders meet regularly during the
school year to implement the program and delegate responsibilities.
STRIDE events--held after school from 2:00 to 5:00--are widely
publicized by STRIDE members. Events include programs by visiting
athletes who qualify as role models, dances, videos, plays, speakers
from the community, and special sports events.
Schools
Teaching About Drug Prevention
Recommendation # 7:
Implement a comprehensive drug prevention curriculum for
kindergarten through grade 12, teaching that drug use is wrong and
harmful, and supporting and strengthening resistance to drugs.
A model program would have these main objectives:
* To value and maintain sound personal health.
* To respect laws and rules prohibiting drugs.
* To resist pressures to use drugs.
* To promote student activities that are drug free and offer healthy
avenues for student interests.
In developing a program, school staff should take the following
steps:
* Determine curriculum content appropriate for the school's drug
problem and grade levels.
* Base the curriculum on an understanding of why children try drugs
in order to teach them how to resist pressures to use drugs.
* Review existing materials for possible adaptation. State and
national organizations--and some lending libraries--that have an
interest in drug prevention make available lists of materials.
In implementing a program, school staff should take the following
steps:
* Include students in all grades. Effective drug education is
cumulative.
* Teach about drugs in health education classes, and reinforce this
curriculum with appropriate materials in classes such as social
studies and science.
* Develop expertise in drug prevention through training. Teachers
should be knowledgeable about drugs, personally committed to
opposing drug use, and skilled at eliciting participation by
students in drug prevention efforts.
(For more detailed information on topics and learning activities to
incorporate in a drug prevention program, see pages 44-49.)
Fact Sheet
Tips for Selecting Drug Prevention Materials
In evaluating drug prevention materials, keep the following points
in mind:
Check the date of publication. Material published before 1980 may
be outdated; even recently published materials may be inaccurate.
Look for "warning flag" phrases and concepts. The following
expressions, many of which appear frequently in "pro-drug" material,
falsely imply that there is a "safe" use of mind-altering drugs:
experimental use, recreational use, social use, controlled use,
responsible use, use/abuse.
Mood-altering is a deceptive euphemism for mind-altering.
The implication of the phrase mood-altering is that only temporary
feelings are involved. The fact is that mood changes are biological
changes in the brain.
"There are no 'good' or 'bad' drugs, just improper use."
This is a popular semantic camouflage in pro-drug literature. It
confuses young people and minimizes the distinct chemical
differences among substances.
"The child's own decision."
Parents cannot afford to leave such hazardous choices to their
children. It is the parents' responsibility to do all in their
power to provide the information and the protection to assure their
children a drug-free childhood and adolescence.
Be alert for contradictory messages. Many authors give a pro-drug
message and then cover their tracks by including "cautions" about how to
use drugs.
Make certain that the health consequences revealed in current
research are adequately described. Literature should make these facts
clear: The high potency of marijuana on the market today makes it more
dangerous than ever. THC, a psychoactive ingredient in marijuana, is
fat-soluble, and its accumulation in the body has many adverse
biological effects. Cocaine can cause death and is one of the most
addictive drugs known. It takes less alcohol to produce impairment in
youths than in adults.
Demand material that sets positive standards of behavior for
children. The message conveyed must be an expectation that children can
say no to drugs. The publication and its message must provide the
information and must support family involvement to reinforce the child's
courage to stay drug free.
A fuller discussion of curriculum selection is offered in Drug
Prevention Curricula: A Guide to Selection and Implementation. The guide
is published by the U.S. Department of Education and is available from
the National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information, Box 2345
Rockville MD 20852.
Schools
Enlisting the Community's Help
Recommendation #8:
Reach out to the community for support and assistance in making the
school's anti-drug policy and program work. Develop collaborative
arrangements in which school personnel, parents, school boards, law
enforcement officers, treatment organizations, and private groups can
work together to provide necessary resources.
School officials should recognize that they cannot solve the drug
problem by themselves. They need to enlist the community's support for
their efforts by taking the following actions:
* Increase community understanding of the problem through meetings,
media coverage, and education programs.
* Build public support for the policy; develop agreement on the goals
of a school drug policy, including prevention and enforcement
goals.
* Educate the community about the effects and extent of the drug
problem.
* Strengthen contacts with law enforcement agencies through
discussions about the school's specific drug problems and ways they
can assist in drug education and enforcement.
* Call on local professionals, such as physicians and pharmacists, to
share their expertise on drug abuse as class lecturers.
* Mobilize the resources of community groups and local businesses to
support the program.
Fact Sheet
Legal Questions on Search and Seizure
In 1985, the Supreme Court for the first time analyzed the
application in the public school setting of the Fourth Amendment
prohibition of unreasonable searches and seizures. The Court sought to
craft a rule that would balance the need of school authorities to
maintain order and the privacy rights of students. The questions in this
section summarize the decisions of the Supreme Court and of lower
Federal courts. School officials should consult with legal counsel in
formulating their policies.
What legal standard applies to school officials who search students
and their possessions for drugs?
The Supreme Court has held that school officials may institute a
search if there are "reasonable grounds" to believe that the search
will reveal evidence that the student has violated or is violating
either the law or the rules of the school.
Do school officials need a search warrant to conduct a search for drugs?
No, not if they are carrying out the search independent of the
police and other law enforcement officials. A more stringent legal
standard may apply if law enforcement officials are involved in the
search.
How extensive can a search be?
The scope of the permissible search will depend on whether the
measures used during the search are reasonably related to the
purpose of the search and are not excessively intrusive in light of
the age and sex of the student being searched. The more intrusive
the search, the greater the justification that will be required by
the courts.
Do school officials have to stop a search when they find the object of
the search?
Not necessarily. If a search reveals items suggesting the presence
of other evidence of crime or misconduct, the school official may
continue the search. For example, if a teacher is justifiably
searching a student's purse for cigarettes and finds rolling
papers, it will be reasonable (subject to any local policy to the
contrary) for the teacher to search the rest of the purse for
evidence of drugs.
Can school officials search student lockers?
Reasonable grounds to believe that a particular student locker
contains evidence of a violation of the law or school rules will
generally justify a search of that locker. In addition, some courts
have upheld written school policies that authorize school officials
to inspect student lockers at any time.
(For a more detailed discussion of legal issues, see pages 50-60).
Fact Sheet
Legal Questions on Suspension and Expulsion
The following questions and answers briefly describe several
Federal requirements that apply to the use of suspension and expulsion
as disciplinary tools in public schools. These may not reflect all laws,
policies, and judicial precedents applicable to any given school
district. School officials should consult with legal counsel to
determine the application of these laws in their schools and to ensure
compliance with all legal requirements.
What Federal procedural requirements apply to suspension or expulsion?
* The Supreme Court has held that students facing suspension or
expulsion from school are entitled under the U.S. Constitution to
the basic due process protections of notice and an opportunity to
be heard. The nature and formality of the "hearing" to be provided
depend on the severity of the sanction being imposed.
* A formal hearing is not required when a school seeks to suspend a
student for 10 days or less. Due process in that situation requires
only that:
-- the school inform the student, either orally or in writing, of
the charges and of the evidence to support those charges.
-- the school give the student an opportunity to deny the charges
and present his or her side of the story.
-- as a general rule, the notice to the student and a rudimentary
hearing should precede a suspension unless a student's presence
poses a continuing danger to persons or property or threatens to
disrupt the academic process. In such cases, the notice and
rudimentary hearing should follow as soon as possible after the
student's removal.
More formal procedures may be required for suspensions longer than
10 days and for expulsions. In addition, Federal law and regulations
establish special rules governing suspensions and expulsions of students
with disabilities.
* States and local school districts may require additional
procedures.
Can students be suspended or expelled from school for use, possession,
or sale of drugs?
Generally, yes. A school may suspend or expel students in
accordance with the terms of its discipline policy. A school policy
may provide for penalties of varying severity, including suspension
or expulsion, to respond to drug-related offenses. It is helpful to
be explicit about the types of offenses that will be punished and
about the penalties that may be imposed for particular types of
offenses (e.g., use, possession, or sale of drugs). Generally,
State and local law will determine the range of sanctions
permitted.
(For a more detailed discussion of legal issues, see pages 50-60.)
WHAT STUDENTS CAN DO
* Learn about the effects of drug use, the reasons why drugs are
harmful, and ways to resist pressures to try drugs.
* Use an understanding of the danger posed by drugs to help other
students avoid them. Encourage other students to resist drugs,
persuade those using drugs to seek help, and report those selling
drugs to parents and the school principal.
Students
Learning the Facts
Recommendation #9:
Learn about the effects of alcohol and other drug use, the reasons
why drugs are harmful, and ways to resist pressures to try drugs.
Students can arm themselves with the knowledge to resist drug use in the
following ways:
* Learning about the effects and risks of drugs.
* Learning the symptoms of drug use and the names of organizations
and individuals available to help when friends or family members
are in trouble.
* Understanding the pressures to use drugs and ways to counteract
* Knowing the school rules on drugs and ways to help make the school
policy work.
* Knowing the school procedures for reporting drug offenses.
* Knowing the laws on drug use and the penalties--for example, for
driving under the influence of alcohol or other drugs--and
understanding how the laws protect individuals and society.
* Developing skill in communicating their opposition to drugs and
their resolve to avoid drug use.
R.H. Watkins High School of Jones County, Mississippi, has
developed this pledge setting forth the duties and responsibilities
of student counselors in its peer counseling program.
Responsibility Pledge for a Peer Counselor
R.H. Watkins High School
As a drug education peer counselor you have the opportunity to help
the youth of our community develop to their full potential without the
interference of illegal drug use. It is a responsibility you must not
take lightly. Therefore, please read the following responsibilities you
will be expected to fulfill next school year and discuss them with your
parents or guardians.
Responsibilities of a Peer Counselor
* Understand and be able to clearly state your beliefs and attitudes
about drug use among teens and adults.
* Remain drug free.
* Maintain an average of C or better in all classes.
* Maintain a citizenship average of B or better.
* Participate in some club or extracurricular activity that
emphasizes the positive side of school life.
* Successfully complete training for the program, including, for
example, units on the identification and symptoms of drug abuse,
history and reasons for drug abuse, and the legal/economic aspects
of drug abuse.
* Successfully present monthly programs on drug abuse in each of the
elementary and junior high schools of the Laurel City school
system, and to community groups, churches, and statewide groups as
needed.
* Participate in rap sessions or individual counseling sessions with
Laurel City school students.
* Attend at least one Jones County Drug Council meeting per year,
attend the annual Drug Council Awards Banquet, work in the Drug
Council Fair exhibit and in any Drug Council workshops, if needed.
* Grades and credit for Drug Education will be awarded on successful
completion of and participation in all the above-stated activities.
________________________ ________________________________
Student's Signature Parent's or Guardian's Signature
Students
Helping to Fight Drug Use
Recommendation # 10:
Use an understanding of the danger posed by alcohol and other drugs
to help other students avoid them. Encourage other students to resist
drugs, persuade those using drugs to seek help, and report those selling
drugs to parents and the school principal.
Although students are the primary victims of drug use in the
schools, drug use cannot be stopped or prevented unless students
actively participate in this effort.
Students can help fight alcohol and other drug use in the following
ways:
* Participating in discussions about the extent of the problem at
their own school.
* Supporting a strong school anti-drug policy and firm, consistent
enforcement of rules.
* Setting a positive example for fellow students and speaking
forcefully against drug use.
* Teaching other students, particularly younger ones, about the
harmful effects of drugs.
* Encouraging their parents to join with other parents to promote a
drug-free environment outside school. Some successful parent groups
have been started as a result of the pressure of a son or daughter
was concerned about drugs.
* Becoming actively involved in efforts to inform the community about
the drug problem.
* Joining in or starting a club or other activity to create positive,
challenging ways for young people to have fun without alcohol and
other drugs. Obtaining adult sponsorship for the group and
publicizing its activities.
* Encouraging friends who have a drug problem to seek help and
reporting persons selling drugs to parents and the principal.
WHAT COMMUNITIES CAN DO
* Help schools fight drugs by providing them with the expertise and
financial resources of community groups and agencies.
* Involve local law enforcement agencies in all aspects of drug
prevention: assessment, enforcement, and education. The police and
courts should have well-established relationships with the schools.
Communities
Providing Support
Recommendation # 11:
Help schools fight drugs by providing them with the expertise and
financial resources of community groups and agencies.
Law enforcement agencies and the courts can take the following
actions:
* Provide volunteers to speak in the schools about the legal
ramifications of alcohol and other drug use. Officers can encourage
students to cooperate with them to stop drug use.
* Meet with school officials to discuss alcohol and other drug use in
the school, share information on the drug problem outside the
school, and help school officials in their investigations.
Social service and health agencies can take the following actions:
* Provide volunteers to speak in the school about the effects of
drugs.
* Meet with parents to discuss symptoms of drug use and to inform
them about counseling resources.
* Provide the schools with health professionals to evaluate students
who may be potential drug users.
* Provide referrals to local treatment programs for students who are
using drugs.
* Establish and conduct drug counseling and support groups for
students.
Business leaders can take the following actions:
* Speak in the schools about the effects of alcohol and other drug
use on employment.
* Provide incentives for students who participate in drug prevention
programs and lead drug-free lives.
* Help schools obtain curriculum materials for their drug prevention
program.
* Sponsor drug-free activities for young people.
Parent groups can take the following actions:
* Mobilize others through informal discussions, door-to-door
canvassing, and school meetings to ensure that students get a
consistent no-drug message at home, at school, and in the
community.
* Contribute volunteers to chaperone student parties and other
activities.
Print and broadcast media can take the following actions:
* Educate the community about the nature of the drug problem in their
schools.
* Publicize school efforts to combat the problem.
Project DARE
Los Angeles, California
A collaborative effort begun in 1983 by the Los Angeles Police
Department and the Los Angeles Unified School District, Project DARE
(Drug Abuse Resistance Education) uses uniformed law enforcement
officers in classrooms as regular instructors. DARE officers use a drug
curriculum that teaches students resistance to peer pressure to use
drugs, self-management skills, and alternatives to drug use.
DARE reaches all Los Angeles Unified School District students from
kindergarten through junior high school. DARE has also spread outside
Los Angeles--police officers from 48 States and 1100 police agencies
have received DARE training. The DARE program is also being used by the
Department of Defense Dependents' Schools (military police serve as
instructors) and at Bureau of Indian Affairs Schools (BIA police
officers serve as instructors).
In addition to providing classroom instruction, the program
arranges teacher orientation, officer-student interaction (on
playgrounds and in cafeterias, for example), and a parent education
evening at which DARE officers explain the program to parents and
provide information about symptoms of drug use and ways to increase
family communication.
Studies have shown that DARE has improved students' attitudes about
themselves, increased their sense of responsibility for themselves and
to police, and strengthened their resistance to drugs. For example,
before the DARE program began, 51 percent of fifth grade students
equated drug use with having more friends. After training, only 8
percent reported this attitude.
DARE's parent program has also changed attitudes. Before DARE
training, 61 percent of parents thought that there was nothing parents
could do about their children's use of drugs; only 5 percent reported
this opinion after the program. Before DARE training, 32 percent of
parents thought that it was all right for children to drink alcohol at a
party as long as adults were present. After DARE, no parents reported
such a view.
Communities
Involving Law Enforcement
Recommendation # 12:
Involve local law enforcement agencies in all aspects of drug
prevention: assessment, enforcement, and education. The police and
courts should have well-established relationships with the schools.
Community groups can take the following actions:
* Support school officials who take a strong position against alcohol
and other drug use.
* Support State and local policies to keep drugs and drug
paraphernalia away from schoolchildren.
* Build a community consensus in favor of strong penalties for
persons convicted of selling drugs, particularly for adults who
have sold drugs to children.
* Encourage programs to provide treatment to juvenile first-offenders
while maintaining tough penalties for repeat offenders and drug
sellers.
Law enforcement agencies, in cooperation with schools, can take the
following actions:
* Establish the procedures each will follow in school drug cases.
* Provide expert personnel to participate in prevention activities
from kindergarten through grade 12.
* Secure areas around schools and see that the sale and use of drugs
are stopped.
* Provide advice and personnel to help improve security in the school
or on school premises.
Lincoln Junior High
Washington, D.C.
Abraham Lincoln Junior High is a modern school located in an
innercity neighborhood. Its ethnically diverse student body has 700
students, representing more than 30 counties. The student population is
51 percent black and 43 percent Hispanic. Many of the students coming to
Lincoln for the first time are newly arrived immigrants from war-torn
countries.
Many of these newly arrived students are eager for acceptance by
their new peers and just as eager to adjust to American culture.
Teachers are keenly aware of the students' desire to fit in and realize
that it is important to let these children know that the majority of
American children do not use drugs nor is drug use an accepted behavior.
This is not an easy task for the teachers to accomplish since the
rampant drug activity going on in their neighborhood may suggest
otherwise.
Lincoln's faculty-sponsored clubs are an important way teachers
support what they want the drug education program to accomplish. To
participate in any club, members must pledge to be drug free. Two clubs
are designed to develop confidence and reinforce social and citizenship
skills. Other clubs target special interests such as the Lincoln Chess
Club and LatiNegro, a student arts group. A summer Substance Abuse
Prevention Education Camp involves nearly 100 students in activities
ranging from volley ball to dance to field trips.
The staff also encourages students to help each other. The Peer
Helper Club, whose members are trained in substance abuse prevention and
leadership skills, publishes a handbook dispensing advice and a
magazine, Cuidando Nuestra Juventud (Taking Care of Our Youth), to which
the entire student body can contribute.
Another innovative way the school gets its message across is by
having the Student Response Team (SRT). This team is comprised of ninth
graders trained to become mediators. They advertise their services
within the school and get referrals from students and teachers. Students
who use the services of the SRT must agree in advance to abide by the
result of the mediation process or be expelled from school. Mediators
meet with students in conflict at lunch or are called from class if the
matter is urgent. This multiracial team has been effective in reducing
violence and convincing peers that they don't have to go to the streets
to settle disputes.
CONCLUSION
Drugs threaten our children's lives, disrupt our schools, shatter
families, and, in some areas, shatter communities. Drug-related crimes
overwhelm our courts, social agencies, and police. This situation need
not and must not continue.
Across the United States, schools and communities have found ways
to turn the tide in the battle against drugs. The methods they have used
and the actions they have taken are described in this volume. We know
what works. We know that drug use can be stopped.
But we cannot expect the schools to do the job without the help of
parents, police, the courts, and other community groups. Drugs will be
beaten only when all of us work together to deliver a firm, consistent
message to those who would use or sell drugs: a message that illegal
drugs will not be tolerated. It is time to join in a national effort to
achieve schools without drugs.
SPECIAL SECTIONS
Teaching About Drug Prevention
How the Law Can Help
Specific Drugs and Their Effects
Sources of Information
References
TEACHING ABOUT DRUG PREVENTION
Teaching About Drug Prevention:
Sample Topics and Learning Activities
An effective drug prevention curriculum covers a broad set of
education objectives which are outlined in greater detail in the
Department of Education's handbook Drug Prevention Curricula: A Guide to
Selection and Implementation. This section presents a model program for
consideration by State and local school authorities who have the
responsibility to design a curriculum that meets local needs and
priorities. The program consists of four objectives plus sample topics
and learning activities.
OBJECTIVE #1: To value and maintain sound personal health; to understand
how drugs affect health.
An effective drug prevention education program instills respect for
a healthy body and mind and imparts knowledge of how the body functions,
how personal habits contribute to good health, and how drugs affect the
body.
At the early elementary level, children learn how to care for their
bodies. Knowledge about habits, medicine, and poisons lays the
foundation for learning about drugs. Older children begin to learn about
the drug problem and study those drugs to which they are most likely to
be exposed. The curriculum for secondary school students is increasingly
drug specific as students learn about the effects of drugs on their
bodies and on adolescent maturation. Health consequences of drug use,
including transmission of AIDS, are emphasized.
Sample topics for elementary school:
* The roles of nutrition, medicine, and health care professionals in
preventing and treating disease.
* The difficulties of recognizing which substances are safe to eat,
drink, or touch; ways to learn whether a substance is safe: by
consulting with an adult and by reading labels.
* The effects of poisons on the body; the effects of medicine on body
chemistry: the wrong drug may make a person ill.
* The nature of habits: their conscious and unconscious development.
Sample topics for secondary school:
* Stress: how the body responds to stress; how drugs increase stress.
* The chemical properties of drugs.
* The effects of drugs on the circulatory, digestive, nervous,
reproductive, and respiratory systems. The effects of drugs on
adolescent development.
* Patterns of substance abuse: the progressive effects of drugs on
the body and mind.
* What is addiction?
* How to get help for a drug or alcohol problem.
Children tend to be oriented toward the present and are likely to
feel invulnerable to the long-term effects of alcohol and other drugs.
For this reason, they should be taught about the short-term effects of
drug use (impact on appearance, alertness, and coordination) as well as
about the cumulative effects.
Sample learning activities for elementary school:
* Make a coloring book depicting various substances. Color only those
items that are safe to eat.
* Use puppets to dramatize what can happen when drugs are used.
* Write stories about what to do if a stranger offers candy, pills,
or a ride. Discuss options in class.
* Try, for a time, to break a bad habit. The teacher emphasizes that
it is easier not to start a bad habit than to break one.
Sample learning activities for secondary school:
* Discuss the properties of alcohol and other drugs with community
experts: physicians, scientists, pharmacists, or law enforcement
officers.
* Interview social workers in drug treatment centers. Visit an open
meeting of Alcoholics Anonymous or Narcotics Anonymous. These
activities should be open only to mature students; careful
preparation and debriefing are essential.
* Research the drug problem at school, in the community, or in the
sports and entertainment fields.
* Design a true-false survey about drug myths and facts; conduct the
survey with classmates and analyze the results.
* Develop an accessible lending library on drugs, well stocked with
up-to-date and carefully chosen materials.
When an expert visits a class, both the class and the expert should
be prepared in advance. Students should learn about the expert's
profession and prepare questions to ask during the visit. The expert
should know what the objectives of the session are and how the session
fits into previous and subsequent learning. The expert should
participate in a discussion or classroom activity, not simply appear as
a speaker.
OBJECTIVE #2: To respect laws and rules prohibiting drugs.
The program teaches children to respect rules and laws as the
embodiment of social values and as tools for protecting individuals and
society. It provides specific instruction about laws concerning drugs.
Students in the early grades learn to identify rules and to
understand their importance, while older students learn about the school
drug code and laws regulating drugs.
Sample topics for elementary school:
* What rules are and what would happen without them.
* What values are and why they should guide behavior.
* What responsible behavior is.
* Why it is wrong to take drugs.
Sample topics for secondary school:
* Student responsibilities in promoting a drug-free school.
* Local, State, and Federal laws on controlled substances; why these
laws exist and how they are enforced.
* Legal consequences of drug use; penalties for driving under the
influence of alcohol or drugs; the relationship between drugs and
other crimes.
* Personal and societal costs of drug use.
Sample learning activities for elementary school:
* Use stories and pictures to identify rules and laws in everyday
life (e.g., lining up for recess).
* Imagine how to get to school in the absence of traffic laws; try to
play a game that has no rules.
* Name some things that are important to adults and then list rules
they have made about these things. (This activity helps explain
values.)
* Solve a simple problem (e.g., my sister hits me, or my math grades
are low). Discuss which solutions are best and why.
* Discuss school drug policies with the principal and other staff
members. Learn how students can help make the policy work better.
* Explain the connection between drug users, drug dealers, and drug
traffickers and law enforcement officers whose lives are placed at
risk or lost in their efforts to stop the drug trade.
Sample learning activities for secondary school:
* Resolve hypothetical school situations involving drug use. Analyze
the consequences for the school, other students, and the
individuals involved.
* Collect information about accidents, crimes, and other problems
related to alcohol and other drugs. Analyze how the problem might
have been prevented and how the incident affected the individuals
involved.
* Conduct research projects. Interview members of the community such
as attorneys, judges, police officers, State highway patrol
officers, and insurance agents about the effects of alcohol and
other drug use on the daily lives of teenagers and their families.
* Draft a legislative petition proposing enactment of a State law on
drug use. Participate in a mock trial or legislative session
patterned after an actual trial or debate. Through these
activities, students learn to develop arguments on behalf of drug
laws and their enforcement.
OBJECTIVE #3: To recognize and resist pressures to use drugs.
Social influences play a key role in encouraging children to try
alcohol and other drugs. Pressures to use drugs come from internal
sources, such as a child's desire to feel included in a group or to
demonstrate independence, and external influences, such as the opinions
and example of friends, older children and adults, and media messages.
Students must learn to identify these pressures. They must then
learn how to counteract messages to use drugs and gain practice in
saying no. The education program emphasizes influences on behavior,
responsible decision making, and techniques for resisting pressures to
use drugs.
Sample topics for elementary through high school:
* The influence of popular culture on behavior.
* The influence of peers, parents, and other important individuals on
a student's behavior; ways in which the need to feel accepted by
others influences behavior.
* Ways to make responsible decisions and to deal constructively with
disagreeable moments and pressures.
* Reasons for not taking drugs.
* Situations in which students may be pressured into using alcohol
and other drugs.
* Ways of resisting pressure to use drugs.
* Effects of drug use on family and friends, and benefits of
resisting pressure to use drugs.
Sample learning activities for elementary through high school:
* Describe recent personal decisions. In small groups, discuss what
considerations influenced the decision (e.g., opinions of family or
friends, beliefs, desire to be popular) and analyze choices and
consequences.
* Examine ads for cigarettes, over-the-counter drugs, and alcohol,
deciding what images are being projected and whether the ads are
accurate.
* Read stories about famous people who held to their beliefs in the
face of opposition. Students can discuss how these people withstood
the pressure and what they accomplished.
* Give reasons for not taking drugs. Discuss with a health educator
or drug counselor the false arguments for using drugs. Develop
counterarguments in response to typical messages or pressures on
behalf of drug use.
* Given a scenario depicting pressure to use drugs, act out ways of
resisting (simply refusing, giving a reason, leaving the scene,
etc.). Students should then practice these techniques repeatedly.
Demonstrate ways of resisting pressures, using older students
specially trained as peer teachers.
* Present scenarios involving drug-related problems (e.g., learning
that another student is selling drugs, learning that a sibling is
using drugs, or being offered a drive home by a friend under the
influence of drugs). Students practice what they would do and
discuss to whom they would turn for help. Teachers should discuss
and evaluate the appropriateness of student responses.
* Discuss how it feels to resist pressures to take drugs. Hold a
poster contest to depict the benefits derived both from not using
and from saying no (e.g., being in control, increased respect from
others, self-confidence).
OBJECTIVE #4: To promote activities that reinforce the positive,
drug-free elements of student life.
School activities that provide opportunities for students to have
fun without alcohol and other drugs, and to contribute to the school
community, build momentum for peer pressure not to use drugs. These
school activities also nurture positive examples by giving older
students opportunities for leadership related to drug prevention.
Sample activities:
* Make participation in school activities dependent on an agreement
not to use alcohol and other drugs.
* Ensure that alcohol and other drugs will not be available at
school-sponsored activities or parties. Plan these events carefully
to be certain that students have attractive alternatives to drug
use.
* Give students opportunities for leadership. They can be trained to
serve as peer leaders in drug prevention programs, write plays, or
design posters for younger students. Activities such as these
provide youthful role models who demonstrate the importance of not
using drugs. Youth training programs are available that prepare
students to assist in drug education and provide information on how
to form drug-free youth groups.
* Form action teams for school improvement with membership limited to
students who are drug free. These action teams campaign against
drug use, design special drug-free events, conduct and follow up on
surveys of school needs, help teachers with paperwork, tutor other
students, or improve the appearance of the school. Through these
activities, students develop a stake in their school, have the
opportunity to serve others, and have positive reasons to reject
drug use.
* Survey community resources that offer help for alcohol or other
drug problems or ways to cope with drug use by a family member.
* Create a program in the school for support of students returning
from treatment.
HOW THE LAW CAN HELP
Federal law accords school officials broad authority to regulate
student conduct and supports reasonable and fair disciplinary action. In
1984, the Supreme Court reaffirmed that the constitutional rights of
students in school are not "automatically coextensive with the rights of
adults in other settings."1 Rather, recognizing that "in recent years .
.. drug use and violent crime in the schools have become major social
problems," the Court has emphasized the importance of effective
enforcement of school rules.2 On the whole, a school "is allowed to
determine the methods of student discipline and need not exercise its
discretion with undue timidity."3 An effective campaign against drug use
requires a basic understanding of legal techniques for searching and
seizing drugs and drug-related material, for suspending and expelling
students involved with drugs, and for assisting law enforcement
officials in the prosecution of drug offenders. Such knowledge will help
schools identify and penalize students who use or sell drugs at school
and enable school officials to uncover the evidence needed to support
prosecutions under Federal and State criminal laws that contain strong
penalties for drug use and sale. In many cases, school officials can be
instrumental in successful prosecutions.
In addition to the general Federal statutes that make it a crime to
possess or distribute a controlled substance, there are special Federal
laws designed to protect children and schools from drugs:
* An important part of the Controlled Substances Act makes it a
Federal crime to sell drugs in or near a public or private
elementary, secondary, vocational, or postsecondary school. Under
this "schoolhouse" law, sales within 1,000 feet of a school are
punishable by up to double the sentence that would apply if the
sale occurred elsewhere. Even more serious punishments are
available for repeat offenders.4
* Distribution or sale to minors of controlled substances is also a
Federal crime. When anyone age 18 or over sells drugs to anyone
under 21, the seller runs the risk that he or she will receive up
to double the sentence that would apply to a sale to an adult. Here
too, more serious penalties can be imposed on repeat offenders.5
By working with Federal and State prosecutors in their area,
schools can help to ensure that these laws and others are used to
make children and schools off-limits to drugs.
The following pages describe in general terms the Federal laws
applicable to the development of an effective school drug policy.
This section is not a compendium of all laws that may apply to a
school district, and it is not intended to provide legal advice on
all issues that may arise. School officials must recognize that
many legal issues in the school context are also governed, in whole
or in part, by State and local laws, which, given their diversity,
cannot be covered here. Advice should be sought from legal counsel
in order to understand the applicable laws and to ensure that the
school's policies and actions make full use of the available
methods of enforcement.
Most private schools, particularly those that receive little or no
financial assistance from public sources and are not associated
with a public entity, enjoy a greater degree of legal flexibility
with respect to combating the sale and use of illegal drugs.
Depending on the terms of their contracts with enrolled students,
such schools may be largely free of the restrictions that normally
apply to drug searches or the suspension or expulsion of student
drug users. Private school officials should consul legal counsel to
determine what enforcement measures may be available to them.
School procedures should reflect the available legal means for
combating drug use. These procedures should be known to and
understood by school administrators and teachers as well as by
students, parents, and law enforcement officials. Everyone should
be aware that school authorities have broad power within the law to
take full, appropriate, and effective action against drug
offenders. Additional sources of information on legal issues in
school drug policy are listed at the end of this handbook.
SEARCHING FOR DRUGS WITHIN THE SCHOOL
In some circumstances, the most important tool for controlling drug
use is an effective program of drug searches. School administrators
should not condone the presence of drugs anywhere on school property.
The presence of any drugs or drug-related materials in school can mean
only one thing--that drugs are being used or distributed in school.
Schools committed to fighting drugs should do everything they can to
determine whether school grounds are being used to facilitate the
possession, use, or distribution of drugs, and to prevent such crimes.
To institute an effective drug search policy in schools with a
substantial problem, school officials can take several steps. First,
they can identify the specific areas in the school where drugs are
likely to be found or used. Student lockers, bathrooms, and "smoking
areas" are obvious candidates. Second, school administrators can clearly
announce in writing at the beginning of the school year that these areas
will be subject to unannounced searches and that students should
consider such areas "public" rather than "private." The more clearly a
school specifies, that these portions of the school's property are
public, the less likely it is that a court will conclude that students
retain any reasonable expectation of privacy in these places and the
less justification will be needed to search such locations.
School officials should therefore formulate and disseminate to all
students and staff a written policy that will permit an effective
program of drug searches. Courts have usually upheld locker searches
where schools have established written policies under which the school
retains joint control over student lockers, maintains duplicate or
master keys for all lockers, and reserves the right to inspect lockers
at any time.6 Although these practices have not become established law
in every part of the country, it will be easier to justify locker
searches in schools that have such policies. Moreover, the mere
existence of such policies can have a salutory effect. If students know
that their lockers may be searched, drug users will find it much more
difficult to obtain drugs in school.
The effectiveness of such searches may be improved with the use of
specially trained dogs. Courts have generally held that the use of dogs
to detect drugs on or in objects such as lockers, ventilators, or desk,
as opposed to persons is not a "search" within the meaning of the Fourth
Amendment.7 Accordingly, school administrators are generally justified
in using dogs in this way.
It is important to remember that any illicit drugs and drug-related
items discovered at school are evidence that may be used in a criminal
trial. School officials should be careful, first, to protect the
evidentiary integrity of such seizures by making sure that the items are
obtained in permissible searches, because unlawfully acquired evidence
will not be admissible in criminal proceedings. Second, school officials
should work closely with local law enforcement officials to preserve, in
writing, the nature and circumstances of any seizure of drug contraband.
In a criminal prosecution, the State must prove that the items produced
as evidence in court are the same items that were seized from the
suspect. Thus, the State must establish a "chain of custody" over the
seized items which accounts for the possession of the evidence from the
moment of its seizure to the moment it is introduced in court. School
policy regarding the disposition of drug-related items should include
procedures for the custody and safekeeping of drugs and drug-related
materials prior to their removal by the police and procedures for
recording the circumstances regarding the seizure.
Searching Students
In some circumstances, teachers or other school personnel will wish
to search a student whom they believe to be in possession of drugs. The
Supreme Court has stated that searches may be carried out according to
"the dictates of reason and common sense."8 The Court has recognized
that the need of school authorities to maintain order justifies searches
that might otherwise be unreasonable if undertaken by police officers or
in the larger community. Thus the Court has held that school officials,
unlike the police, do not need "probable cause" to conduct a search. Nor
do they need a search warrant.9
Under the Supreme Court's ruling:
* School officials may institute a search if there are "reasonable
grounds" to believe that the search will reveal evidence that the
student has violated or is violating either the law or the rules of
the school.
* The extent of the permissible search will depend on whether the
measures used are reasonably related to the purpose of the search
and are not excessively intrusive in light of the age and sex of
the student.
* School officials are not required to obtain search warrants when
they carry out searches independent of the police and other law
enforcement officials. A more stringent legal standard may apply if
law enforcement officials are involved in the search.
Interpretation of "Reasonable Grounds"
Lower courts are beginning to interpret and apply the "reasonable
grounds" standard in the school setting. From these cases it appears
that courts will require more than general suspicion, curiosity, rumor,
or a hunch to justify searching students or their possessions. Factors
that will help sustain a search include the observation of specific and
describable behavior or activities leading one reasonably to believe
that a given student is engaging in or has engaged in prohibited
conduct. The more specific the evidence in support of searching a
particular student, the more likely the search will be upheld. For
example, courts using a "reasonable grounds" (or similar) standard have
upheld the right of school officials to search the following:
* A student's purse, after a teacher saw her smoking in a restroom
and the student denied having smoked or being a smoker.10
* A student's purse, after several other students said that she had
been distributing firecrackers.11
* A student's pockets, based on a phone tip about drugs from an
anonymous source believed to have previously provided accurate
information.12
Scope of Permissible Search
School officials are authorized to conduct searches within
reasonable limits. The Supreme Court has described two aspects of these
limits. First, when officials conduct a search, they must use only
measures that are reasonably related to the purpose of the search;
second, the search may not be excessively intrusive in light of the age
or sex of the student.
For example, if a teacher believes he or she has seen one student
passing a marijuana cigarette to another student, the teacher might
reasonably search the students and any nearby belongings in which the
students might have tried to hide the drug. If it turns out that what
the teacher saw was a stick of gum, the teacher would have no
justification for any further search for drugs.
The more intrusive the search, the greater the justification that
will be required by the courts. A search of a student's jacket or
bookbag can often be justified as reasonable. At the other end of the
spectrum, strip searches are considered a highly intrusive invasion of
individual privacy and are viewed with disfavor by the courts (although
even these searches have been upheld in certain extraordinary
circumstances).
School officials do not necessarily have to stop a search if they
find what they are looking for. If the search of a student reveals items
that create reasonable grounds for suspecting that the student may also
possess other evidence of crime or misconduct, the school officials may
continue the search. For example, if a teacher justifiably searches a
student's purse for cigarettes and finds rolling papers like those used
for marijuana cigarettes, it will then be reasonable for the teacher to
search the rest of the purse for other evidence of drugs.
Consent
If a student consents to a search, the search is permissible,
regardless of whether there would otherwise be reasonable grounds for
the search. To render such a search valid, however, the student must
give consent knowingly and voluntarily.
Establishing whether the student's consent was voluntary can be
difficult, and the burden is on the school officials to prove voluntary
consent. If a student agrees to be searched out of fear or as a result
of other coercion, that consent will probably be found invalid.
Similarly, if school officials indicate that a student must agree to a
search or if the student is very young or otherwise unaware that he or
she has the right to object, the student's consent will also be held
invalid. School officials may find it helpful to explain to students
that they do not have to consent to a search. In some cases, standard
consent forms may be useful.
If a student is asked to consent to a search and refuses, that
refusal does not mean that the search may not be conducted. Rather, in
the absence of consent, school officials retain the authority to conduct
a search when there are reasonable grounds to justify it, as described
previously.
Special Types of Student Searches
Schools with severe drug problems may occasionally wish to resort
to more intrusive searches, such as the use of trained dogs or
urinalysis, to screen students for drug use. The Supreme Court has yet
to address these issues. The following paragraphs explain the existing
rulings on these subjects by other courts:
* Specially trained dogs. The few courts that have considered this
issue disagree as to whether the use of a specially trained dog to
detect drugs on students constitutes a search within the meaning of
the Fourth Amendment. Some courts have held that a dog's sniffing
of a student is a search, and that, in the school setting,
individualized grounds for reasonable suspicion are required in
order for such a "sniff-search" to be held constitutional.13 Under
this standard, a blanket search of a school's entire student
population by specially trained dogs would be prohibited.
At least one other court has held that the use of trained dogs does
not constitute a search, and has permitted the use of such dogs
without individualized grounds for suspicion.14 Another factor that
courts may consider is the way that the dogs detect the presence of
drugs. In some instances, the dogs are merely led down hallways or
classroom aisles. In contrast, having the dogs actually touch parts
of the students' bodies is more intrusive and would probably
require specific justification.
Courts have generally held that the use of specially trained dogs
to detect drugs on objects, as opposed to persons, is not a search
within the meaning of the Fourth Amendment. Therefore, school
officials may often be able to use dogs to inspect student lockers
and school property.15
* Drug testing. The use of urinalysis or other tests to screen
students for drugs is a relatively new phenomenon and the law in
this area is still evolving. Few courts have considered the use of
urinalysis to screen public school students for drugs, and those
courts that have done so have reached mixed results.16 The
permissibility of drug testing of students has not yet been
determined under all circumstances, although drug testing of adults
has been upheld in some settings.
SUSPENSION AND EXPULSION
A school policy may lawfully provide for penalties of varying
severity, including suspension and expulsion, to respond to drug-related
offenses. The Supreme Court has held that because schools "need to be
able to impose disciplinary sanctions for a wide range of unanticipated
conduct disruptive of the educational process," a school's disciplinary
rules need not be so detailed as a criminal code.17 Nonetheless, it is
helpful for school policies to be explicit about the types of offenses
that will be punished and about the penalties that may be imposed for
each of these (e.g., use, possession, or sale of drugs). State and local
law will usually determine the range of sanctions that is permissible.
In general, courts will require only that the penalty imposed for
drug-related misconduct be rationally related to the severity of the
offense.
School officials should not forget that they have jurisdiction to
impose punishment for some drug-related offenses that occur off-campus.
Depending on State and local laws, schools are often able to punish
conduct at off-campus, school-sponsored events as well as off-campus
conduct that has a direct and immediate effect on school activities.
Procedural Guidelines
Students facing suspension or expulsion from school are entitled
under the U.S. Constitution and most State constitutions to commonsense
due process protections of notice and an opportunity to be heard.
Because the Supreme Court has recognized that a school's ability to
maintain order would be impeded if formal procedures were required every
time school authorities sought to discipline a student, the Court has
held that the nature and formality of the "hearing" will depend on the
severity of the sanction being imposed.
A formal hearing is not required when a school seeks to suspend a
student for 10 days or less.18 The Supreme Court has held that due
process in that situation requires only that:
* The school must inform the student, either orally or in writing, of
the charges against him or her and of the evidence to support those
charges.
* The school must give the student an opportunity to deny the charges
and present his or her side of the story.
* As a general rule, this notice and rudimentary hearing should
precede a suspension. However, a student whose presence poses a
continuing danger to persons or property or an ongoing threat of
disrupting the academic process may be immediately removed from
school. In such a situation, the notice and rudimentary hearing
should follow as soon as possible.
The Supreme Court has also stated that more formal procedures may
be required for suspensions longer than 10 days and for expulsions.
Although the Court has not established specific procedures to be
followed in those situations, other Federal courts have set the
following guidelines for expulsions.19 These guidelines would apply to
suspensions longer than 10 days as well:
* The student must be notified in writing of the specific charges
against him or her which, if proven, would justify expulsion.
* The student should be given the names of the witnesses against him
or her and an oral or written report on the facts to which each
witness will testify.
* The student should be given the opportunity to present a defense
against the charges and to produce witnesses or testimony on his or
her behalf.
Many States have laws governing the procedures required for
suspensions and expulsions. Because applicable statutes and judicial
rulings vary across the country, local school districts may enjoy a
greater or lesser degree of flexibility in establishing procedures for
suspensions and expulsions.
School officials must also be aware of the special procedures that
apply to suspension or expulsion of students with disabilities under
Federal law and regulations.20
Effect of Criminal Proceedings Against a Student
A school may usually pursue disciplinary action against a student
regardless of the status of any outside criminal prosecution. That is,
Federal law does not require the school to await the outcome of the
criminal prosecution before initiating proceedings to suspend or expel a
student or to impose whatever other penalty is appropriate for the
violation of the school's rules. In addition, a school is generally free
under Federal law to discipline a student when there is evidence that
the student has violated a school rule, even if a juvenile court has
acquitted (or convicted) the student or if local authorities have
declined to prosecute criminal charges stemming from the same incident.
Schools may wish to discuss this subject with counsel.
Effect of Expulsion
State and local law will determine the effect of expelling a
student from school. Some State laws require the provision of
alternative schooling for students below a certain age. In other areas,
expulsion may mean the removal from public schools for the balance of
the school year or even the permanent denial of access to the public
school system.
CONFIDENTIALITY OF EDUCATION RECORDS
To rid their schools of drugs, school officials will periodically
need to report drug-related crimes to police and to help local law
enforcement authorities detect and prosecute drug offenders. In doing
so, schools will need to take steps to ensure compliance with Federal
and State laws governing confidentiality of student records.
The Federal law that addresses this issue is the Family Educational
Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA),21 which applies to any school that
receives Federal funding and which limits the disclosure of certain
information about students that is contained in education records.22
Under FERPA, disclosure of information in education records to
individuals or entities other than parents, students, and school
officials is permissible only in specified situations.23 In many cases,
unless the parents or an eligible student24 provides written consent,
FERPA will limit a school's ability to turn over education records or to
disclose information from them to the police. Such disclosure is
permitted, however, if (1) it is required by a court order or subpoena,
or (2) it is warranted by a health and safety emergency. In the first of
these two cases, reasonable efforts must be made to notify the student's
parents before the disclosure is made. FERPA also permits disclosure if
a State law enacted before November 19, 1974, specifically requires
disclosure to State and local officials.
Schools should be aware, however, that because FERPA governs only
the information in education records, it does not limit disclosure of
other information. Thus, school employees are free to disclose any
information of which they become aware through personal observation. For
example, a teacher who witnesses a drug transaction may, when the police
arrive, report what he or she witnessed. Similarly, evidence seized from
a student during a search is not an education record and may be turned
over to the police without constraint.
State laws and school policies may impose additional, and sometimes
more restrictive, requirements regarding the disclosure of information
about students. Because this area of the law is complicated, it is
especially important that an attorney be involved in formulating school
policy under FERPA and applicable State laws.
OTHER LEGAL ISSUES
Lawsuits Against Schools or School Of Officials
Disagreements between parents or students and school officials
about disciplinary measures usually can be resolved informally.
Occasionally, however, a school's decisions and activities relating to
disciplinary matters are the subject of lawsuits by parents or students
against administrators, teachers, and school systems. For these reasons,
it is advisable that school districts obtain adequate insurance coverage
for themselves and for all school personnel for liability arising from
disciplinary actions.
Suits may be brought in Federal or State court; typically, they are
based on a claim that a student's constitutional or statutory rights
have been violated. Frequently, these suits will seek to revoke the
school district's imposition of some disciplinary measure, for example,
by ordering the reinstatement of a student who has been expelled or
suspended. Suits may also attempt to recover money damages from the
school district or the employee involved, or both; however, court awards
of money damages are extremely rare. Moreover, although there can be no
guarantee of a given result in any particular case, courts in recent
years have tended to discourage such litigation,
In general, disciplinary measures imposed reasonably and in
accordance with established legal requirements will be upheld by the
courts. As a rule, Federal judges will not substitute their
interpretations of school rules or regulations for those of local school
authorities or otherwise second-guess reasonable decisions by school
officials.25 In addition, school officials are entitled to a qualified
good-faith immunity from personal liability for damages for having
violated a student's Federal constitutional or civil rights.26 When this
immunity applies, it shields school officials from any personal
liability for money damages. Thus, as a general matter, personal
liability is very rare, because officials should not be held personally
liable unless their actions are clearly unlawful, unreasonable, or
arbitrary.
When a court does award damages, the award may be "compensatory" or
"punitive." Compensatory damages are awarded to compensate the student
for injuries actually suffered as a result of the violation of his or
her rights and cannot be based upon the abstract "value" or
"importance"
of the constitutional rights in question.27 The burden is on the student
to prove that he or she suffered actual injury as a result of the
deprivation. Thus, a student who is suspended, but not under the
required procedures, will not be entitled to compensation if the student
would have been suspended had a proper hearing been held. If the student
cannot prove that the failure to hold a hearing itself caused him or her
some compensable harm, then the student is entitled to no more than
nominal damages, such as $1.00.28 "Punitive damages" are awarded to
punish the perpetrator of the injury. Normally, punitive damages are
awarded only when the conduct in question is malicious, unusually
reckless, or otherwise reprehensible.
Parents and students can also claim that actions by a school or
school officials have violated State law. For example, it can be
asserted that a teacher "assaulted" a student in violation of a State
criminal law. The procedures and standards in actions involving such
violations are determined by each State. Some States provide a qualified
immunity from tort liability under standards similar to the "good faith"
immunity in Federal civil rights actions. Other States provide absolute
immunity under their law for actions taken in the course of a school
official's duties.
Nondiscrimination in Enforcement of Discipline
Federal law applicable to programs or activities receiving Federal
financial assistance prohibits school officials who are administering
discipline from discriminating against students on the basis of race,
color, national origin, or sex. Schools should therefore administer
their discipline policies evenhandedly, without regard to such
considerations. Thus, as a general matter, students with similar
disciplinary records who violate the same rule in the same way should be
treated similarly. For example, if male and female students with no
prior record of misbehavior are caught together smoking marijuana, it
would not, in the absence of other relevant factors, be advisable for
the school to suspend the male student for 10 days while imposing only
an afternoon detention on the female student. Such divergent penalties
for the same offense may be appropriate, however, if the student who
received the harsher punishment had a history of misconduct or committed
other infractions after this first confrontation with school
authorities.
School officials should also be aware of and adhere to the special
rules and procedures for the disciplining of students with disabilities
under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 20 U.S.C. 1400-20
and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, 29 U.S.C. 794. (For
legal citations, see Reference Section p. 84.)
RESOURCES
Specific Drugs and Their Effects
TOBACCO
Effects
The smoking of tobacco products is the chief avoidable cause of
death in our society. Smokers are more likely than nonsmokers to
contract heart disease--some 170,000 die each year from smoking-related
coronary heart disease. Lung, larynx, esophageal, bladder, pancreatic,
and kidney cancers also strike smokers at increased rates. Some 30
percent of cancer deaths (130,000 per year) are linked to smoking.
Chronic obstructive lung diseases such as emphysema and chronic
bronchitis are 10 times more likely to occur among smokers than among
nonsmokers.
Smoking during pregnancy also poses serious risks. Spontaneous
abortion, preterm birth, low birth weights, and fetal and infant deaths
are all more likely to occur when the pregnant woman/mother is a smoker.
Cigarette smoke contains some 4,000 chemicals, several of which are
known carcinogens. Other toxins and irritants found in smoke can produce
eye, nose, and throat irritations. Carbon monoxide, another component of
cigarette smoke, combines with hemoglobin in the blood stream to form
carboxyhemoglobin, a substance that interferes with the body's ability
to obtain and use oxygen.
Perhaps the most dangerous substance in tobacco smoke is nicotine.
Although it is implicated in the onset of heart attacks and cancer, its
most dangerous role is reinforcing and strengthening the desire to
smoke. Because nicotine is highly addictive, addicts find it very
difficult to stop smoking. Of 1,000 typical smokers, fewer than 20
percent succeed in stopping on the first try.
Although the harmful effects of smoking cannot be questioned,
people who quit can make significant strides in repairing damage done by
smoking. For pack-a-day smokers, the increased risk of heart attack
dissipates after 10 years. The likelihood of contracting lung cancer as
a result of smoking can also be greatly reduced by quitting.
ALCOHOL
Effects
Alcohol consumption causes a number of marked changes in behavior.
Even low doses significantly impair the judgment and coordination
required to drive a car safely, increasing the likelihood that the
driver will be involved in an accident. Low to moderate doses of alcohol
also increase the incidence of a variety of aggressive acts, including
spouse and child abuse. Moderate to high doses of alcohol cause marked
impairments in higher mental functions, severely altering a person's
ability to learn and remember information. Very high doses cause
respiratory depression and death. If combined with other depressants of
the central nervous system, much lower doses of alcohol will produce the
effects just described.
Repeated use of alcohol can lead to dependence. Sudden cessation of
alcohol intake is likely to produce withdrawal symptoms, including
severe anxiety, tremors, hallucinations, and convulsions. Alcohol
withdrawal can be life-threatening. Long-term consumption of large
quantities of alcohol, particularly when combined with poor nutrition,
can also lead to permanent damage to vital organs such as the brain and
the liver.
Mothers who drink alcohol during pregnancy may give birth to
infants with fetal alcohol syndrome. These infants have irreversible
physical abnormalities and mental retardation. In addition, research
indicates that children of alcoholic parents are at greater risk than
other youngsters of becoming alcoholics.
CANNABIS
Effects
All forms of cannabis have negative physical and mental effects.
Several regularly observed physical effects of cannabis are a
substantial increase in the heart rate, bloodshot eyes, a dry mouth and
throat, and increased appetite.
Use of cannabis may impair or reduce short-term memory and
comprehension, alter sense of time, and reduce ability to perform tasks
requiring concentration and coordination, such as driving a car.
Research also shows that students do not retain knowledge when they are
"high." Motivation and cognition may be altered, making the acquisition
of new information difficult. Marijuana can also produce paranoia and
psychosis.
Because users often inhale the unfiltered smoke deeply and then
hold it in their lungs as long as possible, marijuana is damaging to the
lungs and pulmonary system. Marijuana smoke contains more cancer-causing
agents than tobacco smoke.
Long-term users of cannabis may develop psychological dependence
and require more of the drug to get the same effect. The drug can become
the center of their lives.
[Graphic Omitted]
INHALANTS
Effects
The immediate negative effects of inhalants include nausea,
sneezing, coughing, nosebleeds, fatigue, lack of coordination, and loss
of appetite. Solvents and aerosol sprays also decrease the heart and
respiratory rates and impair judgment. Amyl and butyl nitrite cause
rapid pulse, headaches, and involuntary passing of urine and feces.
Long-term use may result in hepatitis or brain damage.
Deeply inhaling the vapors, or using large amounts over a short
time, may result in disorientation, violent behavior, unconsciousness,
or death. High concentrations of inhalants can cause suffocation by
displacing the oxygen in the lungs or by depressing the central nervous
system to the point that breathing stops.
Long-term use can cause weight loss, fatigue, electrolyte
imbalance, and muscle fatigue. Repeated sniffing of concentrated vapors
over time can permanently damage the nervous system.
[Graphic Omitted]
COCAINE
Effects
Cocaine stimulates the central nervous system. Its immediate
effects include dilated pupils and elevated blood pressure, heart rate,
respiratory rate, and body temperature. Occasional use can cause a
stuffy or runny nose, while chronic use can ulcerate the mucous membrane
of the nose. Injecting cocaine with contaminated equipment can cause
AIDS, hepatitis, and other diseases. Preparation of freebase, which
involves the use of volatile solvents, can result in death or injury
from fire or explosion. Cocaine can produce psychological and physical
dependency, a feeling that the user cannot function without the drug. In
addition, tolerance develops rapidly.
Crack or freebase rock is extremely addictive, and its effects are
felt within 10 seconds. The physical effects include dilated pupils,
increased pulse rate, elevated blood pressure, insomnia, loss of
appetite, tactile hallucinations, paranoia, and seizures.
The use of cocaine can cause death by cardiac arrest or respiratory
failure.
[Graphic Omitted]
OTHER STIMULANTS
Effects
Stimulants can cause increased heart and respiratory rates,
elevated blood pressure, dilated pupils, and decreased appetite. In
addition, users may experience sweating, headache, blurred vision,
dizziness, sleeplessness, and anxiety. Extremely high doses can cause a
rapid or irregular heartbeat, tremors, loss of coordination, and even
physical collapse. An amphetamine injection creates a sudden increase in
blood pressure that can result in stroke, very high fever, or heart
failure.
In addition to the physical effects, users report feeling restless,
anxious, and moody. Higher doses intensify the effects. Persons who use
large amounts of amphetamines over a long period of time can develop an
amphetamine psychosis that includes hallucinations, delusions, and
paranoia. These symptoms usually disappear when drug use ceases.
[Graphic Omitted]
DEPRESSANTS
Effects
The effects of depressants are in many ways similar to the effects
of alcohol. Small amounts can produce calmness and relaxed muscles, but
somewhat larger doses can cause slurred speech, staggering gait, and
altered perception. Very large doses can cause respiratory depression,
coma, and death. The combination of depressants and alcohol can multiply
the effects of the drugs, thereby multiplying the risks.
The use of depressants can cause both physical and psychological
dependence. Regular use over time may result in a tolerance to the drug,
leading the user to increase the quantity consumed. When regular users
suddenly stop taking large doses, they may develop withdrawal symptoms
ranging from restlessness, insomnia, and anxiety to convulsions and
death.
Babies born to mothers who abuse depressants during pregnancy may
be physically dependent on the drugs and show withdrawal symptoms
shortly after they are born. Birth defects and behavioral problems also
may result.
[Graphic Omitted]
HALLUCINOGENS
Effects
Phencyclidine (PCP) interrupts the functions of the neocortex, the
section of the brain that controls the intellect and keeps instincts in
check. Because the drug blocks pain receptors, violent PCP episodes may
result in self-inflicted injuries.
The effects of PCP vary, but users frequently report a sense of
distance and estrangement. Time and body movement are slowed down.
Muscular coordination worsens and senses are dulled. Speech is blocked
and incoherent.
Chronic users of PCP report persistent memory problems and speech
difficulties. Some of these effects may last 6 months to a year
following prolonged daily use. Mood disorders--depression, anxiety, and
violent behavior--also occur. In later stages of chronic use, users
often exhibit paranoid and violent behavior and experience
hallucinations. Large doses may produce convulsions and coma, as well as
heart and lung failure.
Lysergic acid {LSD), mescaline, and psilocybin cause illusions and
hallucinations. The physical effects may include dilated pupils,
elevated body temperature, increased heart rate and blood pressure, loss
of appetite, sleeplessness, and tremors.
Sensations and feelings may change rapidly. It is common to have a
bad psychological reaction to LSD, mescaline, and psilocybin. The user
may experience panic, confusion, suspicion, anxiety, and loss of
control. Delayed effects, or flashbacks, can occur even after use has
ceased.
[Graphic Omitted]
NARCOTICS
Effects
Narcotics initially produce a feeling of euphoria that often is
followed by drowsiness, nausea, and vomiting. Users also may experience
constricted pupils, watery eyes, and itching. An overdose may produce
slow and shallow breathing, clammy skin, convulsions, coma, and possible
death. Tolerance to narcotics develops rapidly and dependence is likely.
The use of contaminated syringes may result in disease such as AIDS,
endocarditis, and hepatitis. Addiction in pregnant women can lead to
premature, stillborn, or addicted infants who experience severe
withdrawal symptoms.
[Graphic Omitted]
DESIGNER DRUGS
Effects
Illegal drugs are defined in terms of their chemical formulas. To
circumvent these legal restrictions, underground chemists modify the
molecular structure of certain illegal drugs to produce analogs known as
designer drugs. These drugs can be several hundred times stronger than
the drugs they are designed to imitate.
Many of the so-called designer drugs are related to amphetamines
and have mild stimulant properties but are mostly euphoriants. They can
produce severe neurochemical damage to the brain.
The narcotic analogs can cause symptoms such as those seen in
Parkinson's disease: uncontrollable tremors, drooling, impaired speech,
paralysis, and irreversible brain damage. Analogs of amphetamines and
methamphetamines cause nausea, blurred vision, chills or sweating, and
faintness. Psychological effects include anxiety, depression, and
paranoia. As little as one dose can cause brain damage. The analogs of
phencyclidine cause illusions, hallucinations, and impaired perception.
[Graphic Omitted]
ANABOLIC STEROIDS
Anabolic steroids are a group of powerful compounds closely related
to the male sex hormone testosterone. Developed in the 1930s, steroids
are seldom prescribed by physicians today. Current legitimate medical
uses are limited to certain kinds of anemia, severe burns, and some
types of breast cancer.
Taken in combination with a program of muscle-building exercise and
diet, steroids may contribute to increases in body weight and muscular
strength. Because of these properties, athletes in a variety of sports
have used steroids since the 1950s, hoping to enhance performance.
Today, they are being joined by increasing numbers of young people
seeking to accelerate their physical development.
Steroid users subject themselves to more than 70 side effects
ranging in severity from liver cancer to acne and including
psychological as well as physical reactions. The liver and the
cardiovascular and reproductive systems are most seriously affected by
steroid use. In males, use can cause withered testicles, sterility, and
impotence. In females, irreversible masculine traits can develop along
with breast reduction and sterility. Psychological effects in both sexes
include very aggressive behavior known as "roid rage" and depression.
While some side effects appear quickly, others, such as heart attacks
and strokes, may not show up for years.
Signs of steroid use include quick weight and muscle gains (if
steroids are being used in conjunction with a weight training program);
behavioral changes, particularly increased aggressiveness and
combativeness; jaundice; purple or red spots on the body; swelling of
feet or lower legs; trembling; unexplained darkening of the skin;
persistent unpleasant breath odor, and severe acne.
Steroids are produced in tablet or capsule form for oral ingestion,
or as a liquid for intramuscular injection.
Sources of Information
The Department of Education does not endorse private or commercial
products or services, or products or services not affiliated with the
Federal Government. The sources of information listed on this and the
following pages are intended only as a partial listing of the resources
that are available to readers of this booklet. Readers are encouraged to
research and inform themselves of the products or services, relating to
drug and alcohol abuse, that are available to them. Readers are
encouraged to visit their public libraries to find out more about the
dangers of drug and alcohol abuse, or to call local, State, or national
hotlines for further information, advice, or assistance.
TOLL-FREE INFORMATION
1-800-COCAINE--COCAINE HELPLINE
A round-the-clock information and referral service. Recovering
cocaine addict counselors answer the phones, offer guidance, and refer
drug users and parents to local public and private treatment centers and
family learning centers.
1-800-NCA-CALL--NATIONAL COUNCIL ON ALCOHOLISM INFORMATION LINE
The National Council on Alcoholism, Inc., is the national nonprofit
organization combating alcoholism, other drug addictions, and related
problems. Provides information about NCA's State and local affiliates'
activities in their areas. Also provides referral services to families
and individuals seeking help with an alcohol or other drug problem.
1-800-662-HELP--NIDA HOTLINE
NIDA Hotline, operated by the National Institute on Drug Abuse, is
a confidential information and referral line that directs callers to
cocaine abuse treatment centers in the local community. Free materials
on drug use also are distributed in response to inquiries.
GENERAL READINGS
Publications listed below are free unless otherwise noted.
Adolescent Drug Abuse: Analyses of Treatment Research, by Elizabeth R.
Rahdert and John Grabowski, 1988.
This 139-page book assesses the adolescent drug user and offers
theories, techniques, and findings about treatment and prevention. It
also discusses family-based approaches. National Clearinghouse for
Alcohol and Drug Information, P.O. Box 2345, Rockville, MD 20852.
Adolescent Peer Pressure Theory, Correlates, and Program Implications
for Drug Abuse Prevention, 1988, U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services.
This 115-page book focuses on constructive ways of channeling peer
pressure. This volume was developed to help parents and professionals
understand the pressures associated with adolescence, the factors
associated with drug use, and other forms of problem behavior. Different
peer program approaches, ways in which peer programs can be implemented,
and research suggestions are included. National Clearinghouse for
Alcohol and Drug Information, P.O. Box 2345, Rockville, MD 20852.
Building Drug-Free Schools, by Richard A. Hawley, Robert C. Peterson,
and Margaret C. Mason, 1986.
This four-part drug prevention kit for grades K-12 provides school
staff, parents, and community groups with suggestions for developing a
workable school drug policy, K-12 curriculum, and community support. The
kit consists of three written guides ($50) and a film ($275). American
Council for Drug Education, 204 Monroe Street, Suite 110, Rockville, MD
20852. Telephone (301) 294-0600.
The Challenge newsletter highlights successful school-based programs,
provides suggestions on effective prevention techniques and the latest
research on drugs and their effects. Published quarterly by the U.S.
Department of Education and available from the National Clearinghouse
for Alcohol and Drug Information, P.O. Box 2345, Rockville, MD 20852.
Courtwatch Manual.
A 111-page manual explaining the court system, the criminal justice
process, Courtwatch activities, and what can be done before and after a
criminal is sentenced. Washington Legal Foundation, 1705 N Street, NW,
Washington, DC 20036. Enclose $5 for postage and handling. Telephone
(202) 857-0240.
Drug Prevention Curricula: A Guide to Selection and Implementation, by
the U.S. Department of Education, 1988.
Written with the help of a distinguished advisory panel, this 76-page
handbook represents the best current thinking about drug prevention
education. It shows what to look for when adopting or adapting
ready-made curricula, and suggests important lessons that ought to be
part of any prevention education sequence. National Clearinghouse for
Alcohol and Drug Information, P.O. Box 2345, Rockville, MD 20852.
Getting Tough on Gateway Drugs, by Robert DuPont, Jr., 1985.
This 330-page book describes the drug problem, the drug-dependence
syndrome, the gateway drugs, and some ways that families can prevent and
treat drug problems. American Psychiatric Press, Inc., 1400 K Street,
NW, Suite 1101, Washington, DC 20005, paperback, $9.95. Telephone
1-800-368-5777 and in the DC area (202) 682-6269.
Gone Way Down: Teenage Drug-Use Is a Disease, by Miller Newton, 1981,
revised 1987.
This 72-page book describes the stages of adolescent drug use. American
Studies Press, paperback, $3.95. Telephone (813) 961-7200.
Kids and Drugs: A Handbook for Parents and Professionals, by Joyce
Tobias, 1986, reprinted 1987.
A 96-page handbook about adolescent drug and alcohol use, the effects of
drugs and the drug culture, stages of chemical use, the formation of
parent groups, and available resources. PANDAA Press, 4111 Watkins
Trail, Annandale, VA 22003. Telephone (703) 750-9285, paperback, $4.95
(volume discounts).
National Trends in Drug Use and Related Factors Among American High
School Students, 1975-1986, by Jerald G. Bachman, Lloyd D. Johnston, and
Patrick M. O'Malley, 1987.
This 265-page book reports on trends in drug use and attitudes of high
school seniors, based on an annual survey conducted since 1975. National
Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information, P.O. Box 2345,
Rockville, MD 20852.
Parents, Peers and Pot II: Parents in Action, by Marsha Manatt, 1983,
reprinted 1988.
This 160-page book describes the formation of parent groups in rural,
suburban, and urban communities. National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and
Drug Information, P.O. Box 2345, Rockville, MD 20852.
Peer Pressure Reversal, by Sharon Scott, 1985, reprinted 1988.
A 183-page guidebook for parents, teachers, and concerned citizens to
enable them to teach peer pressure reversal skills to children. Human
Resource Development Press, 22 Amherst Road, Amherst, MA 01002.
Telephone (413) 253-3488, paperback, $9.95.
Pot Safari, by Peggy Mann, 1982, reprinted 1987.
A 134-page book for parents and teenagers. Distinguished research
scientists are interviewed on the subject of marijuana. Woodmere Press,
Cathedral Finance Station, P.O. Box 20190, New York, NY 10125. Telephone
(212) 678-7839. Paperback, $6.95 plus shipping (volume discounts).
Strategies for Controlling Adolescent Drug Use, by Michael J. Polich et
al., 1984.
This 196-page book reviews the scientific literature on the nature of
drug use and the effectiveness of drug law enforcement, treatment, and
prevention programs. The Rand Corporation, 1700 Main Street, P.O. Box
2138, Santa Monica, CA 90406-2138, R-3076-CHF. Telephone (213) 393-0411,
paperback $15.00.
Team Up for Drug Prevention With America's Young Athletes.
A free booklet for coaches that includes information about alcohol and
other drugs, reasons why athletes use drugs, suggested activities for
coaches, a prevention program, a survey for athletes and coaches, and
sample letters to parents. Drug Enforcement Administration, Demand
Reduction Section, 1405 I Street, NW, Washington, DC 20537. Telephone
(202) 786-4096.
The Fact Is...You Can Prevent Alcohol and Other Drug Problems Among
Elementary School Children, 1988.
This 17-page booklet includes audiovisuals, program descriptions, and
professional and organizational resources to assist educators and
parents of young children. National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug
Information, P.O. Box 2345, Rockville, MD 20852.
VIDEOTAPES
The following drug prevention videos were developed by the U.S.
Department of Education. They are available for loan through the
Department's Regional Centers listed on pages 78 and 79 and the National
Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information, P.O. Box 2345,
Rockville, MD 20852; (301) 468-2600.
Elementary School
The Drug Avengers. Ten 5-minute animated adventures that urge caution
about ingesting unfamiliar substances; encourage students to trust their
instincts when they think something is wrong; and show that drugs make
things worse, not better.
Fast Forward Future. A magical device allows youngsters to peer into the
future and see on a TV screen what will happen if they use drugs and
what will happen if they remain drug free.
Straight Up. A fantasy adventure that features information on the
effects of drugs, developing refusal skills, building self-esteem, and
resisting peer pressure.
Junior High
Straight at Ya. Tips on peer pressure, saying no, and building
self-esteem.
Lookin' Good. A two-part series based on actual incidents that convey
the dangers of drug use and promote the use of peer support groups.
Straight Talk. Teens discuss why they won't use drugs and ways to avoid
drugs.
High School
Hard Facts About Alcohol, Marijuana, and Crack. Offers factual
information about the dangers of drug use in a series of dramatic
vignettes.
Speak Up, Speak Out: Learning to Say No to Drugs. Gives students
specific techniques they can use to resist peer pressure and say no to
drug use.
Dare to Be Different. Uses the friendship of two athletes in their last
year of high school to illustrate the importance of goals and values in
resisting pressures to use drugs.
Downfall: Sports and Drugs. Shows how drugs affect athletic performance
and examines the consequences of drug use, including steroid use, on
every aspect of an athlete's life--career, family, friends, sense of
accomplishment, and self-esteem.
Private Victories. Illustrates the effects of drug and alcohol use on
students and the value of positive peer influences in resisting peer
pressure to use drugs.
SOURCES OF FREE CATALOGS OF PUBLICATIONS
Hazelden Educational Materials. A source for pamphlets and books on drug
use and alcoholism and curriculum materials for drug prevention.
Telephone 1-800-328-9000. In Minnesota, call (612) 257-4010 or
1-800-257-0070.
National Council on Alcoholism. A source for pamphlets, booklets, and
fact sheets on alcoholism and drug use. Telephone (212) 206-6770.
Johnson Institute. A source for audiocassettes, films, videocassettes,
pamphlets, and books on alcoholism and drug use. Offers books and
pamphlets on prevention and intervention for children, teens, parents,
and teachers. Telephone toll-free 1-800-231-5165. In Minnesota,
1-800-247-0484 and in Minneapolis/St. Paul area, 944-0511.
National Association for Children of Alcoholics. A source for books,
pamphlets, and handbooks for children of alcoholics. Conducts regional
workshops and provides a directory of local members and meetings.
Telephone (714) 499-3889.
SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY RESOURCES
ACTION Drug Prevention Program.
ACTION, the Federal volunteer agency, works at the local, State, and
national levels to encourage and help fund the growth of youth, parents,
and senior citizen groups and networks committed to helping youth remain
drug free. 806 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Suite M-606, Washington, DC
20525. Telephone (202) 634-9757.
American Council for Drug Education (ACDE).
ACDE organizes conferences; develops media campaigns; reviews scientific
findings; publishes books, a quarterly newsletter, and education kits
for physicians, schools, and libraries; and produces films. 204 Monroe
Street, Suite 110, Rockville, MD 20852. Telephone (301) 294-0600.
Committees of Correspondence.
This organization provides a newsletter and bulletins on issues, ideas,
and contacts. Publishes a resource list and pamphlets. Membership is
$15.00. 57 Conant Street, Room 113, Danvers, MA 09123. Telephone (508)
774-2641.
Drug-Free Schools and Communities--Regional Centers Program, U.S.
Department of Education.
This program is designed to help local school districts, State education
agencies, and institutions of higher education to develop alcohol and
drug education and prevention programs. Five regional centers provide
training and technical assistance. For further information on center
services, contact the center in your region:
Northeast Regional Center for Connecticut, Delaware, Maine,
Drug-Free Schools and Maryland, Massachusetts,
Communities New Hampshire, New Jersey,
12 Overton Ave. New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania
Sayville, NY 11782-0403 Rhode Island, Vermont
(516) 589-7022
Southeast Regional Center for Alabama,
Drug-Free Schools and District of Columbia, Florida,
Communities Georgia, Kentucky,
Spencerian Office Plaza North Carolina, Puerto Rico,
University of Louisville South Carolina, Tennessee,
Louisville, KY 40292 Virginia, Virgin Islands,
(502) 588-0052 West Virginia
FAX: (502) 588-1782
Midwest Regional Center for Indiana, Illinois,
Drug-Free Schools and Iowa, Michigan,
Communities Minnesota,
1900 Spring Road Missouri, Nebraska,
Oak Brook, IL 60521 North Dakota,
(708) 571-4710 South Dakota,
FAX: (708) 571-4718 Wisconsin
Southwest Regional Center Arizona, Arkansas,
for Drug-Free Schools and Colorado, Kansas,
Communities Louisiana, Mississippi,
555 Constitution Ave. New Mexico, Oklahoma,
Norman, OK 73037-0005 Texas, Utah
(405) 325-1454
(800) 234-7972 (outside Oklahoma)
Western Regional Center Alaska, California, Hawaii,
for Drug-Free Schools and Idaho, Montana, Nevada,
Communities Oregon, Washington, Wyoming,
101 S.W. Main St., Suite 500 American Samoa, Guam,
Portland, OR 97204 Northern Mariana Islands,
(503) 275-9480 and Republic of Palau
(800) 547-6339 (outside Oregon)
For general program information, contact the U.S. Department of
Education, Drug-Free Schools Staff, 400 Maryland Avenue, SW, Washington,
DC 20202-6151. Telephone (202) 732-4599.
Drug-Free Schools and Communities--State and Local Programs, U.S.
Department of Education.
This program provides each State educational agency and Governor's
office with funds for alcohol and drug education and prevention programs
in local schools and communities. For information on contact persons in
your State, contact the U.S. Department of Education, Drug-Free Schools
Staff, 400 Maryland Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20202-6151. Telephone
(202) 732-4599.
Families in Action.
This organization maintains a drug information center with more than
200,000 documents. Publishes Drug Abuse Update, a quarterly journal
containing abstracts of articles published in medical and academic
journals and newspapers. $25 for four issues. 2296 Henderson Mill Road,
Suite 204, Atlanta, GA 30345. Telephone (404) 934-6364.
"Just Say No" Clubs.
These nationwide clubs provide support and positive peer reinforcement
to youngsters through workshops, seminars, newsletters, walk-a-thons,
and a variety of other activities. Clubs are organized by schools,
communities, and parent groups. Just Say No Foundation, 1777 N.
California Boulevard, Suite 200, Walnut Creek, CA 94596. Telephone
1-800-258-2766 or (415) 939-6666.
Narcotics Education, Inc.
This organization publishes pamphlets, books, teaching aids, posters,
audiovisual aids, and prevention magazines designed for classroom use:
WINNER for Preteens and LISTEN for teens. 6830 Laurel Street, NW,
Washington, DC 20012. Telephone 1-800-548-8700, or in the Washington, DC
area, call (202) 722-6740.
Parents' Resource Institute for Drug Education, Inc. (PRIDE).
This national resource and information center offers consultant services
to parent groups, school personnel, and youth groups, and provides a
drug-use survey service. It conducts an annual conference; publishes a
newsletter, a youth group handbook, and other publications; and sells
and rents books, films, videos, and slide programs. Membership is $20.
The Hurt Building, 50 Hurt Plaza, Suite 210, Atlanta, GA 30303.
Telephone (404) 577-4500, 1-800-241-9746.
TARGET.
Conducted by the National Federation of State High School Associations,
an organization of interscholastic activities associations, TARGET
offers workshops, training seminars, and an information bank on chemical
use and prevention. It has a computerized referral service to substance
abuse literature and prevention programs. National Federation of State
High School Associations, 11724 Plaza Circle, P.O. Box 20626, Kansas
City, MO 64195. Telephone (816) 464-5400.
Toughlove.
This national self-help group for parents, children, and communities
emphasizes cooperation, personal initiative, avoidance of blame, and
action. It publishes a newsletter, brochures, and books and holds
workshops. P.O. Box 1069, Doylestown, PA 18901. Telephone 1-800-333-1069
or (215) 348-7090.
U.S. Clearinghouse.
(A publication list is available on request, along with placement on a
mailing list for new publications. Single copies are free.)
National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information (NCADI)
P.O. Box 2345
Rockville, MD 20852
(301) 468-2600
1-800-SAY-NOTO
NCADI combines the clearinghouse activities previously administered by
the National Institute on Alcoholism and Alcohol Abuse and the National
Institute on Drug Abuse. The Department of Education contributes to the
support of the clearinghouse, and provides anti-drug materials for free
distribution.
READINGS ON LEGAL ISSUES
Alexander, Kern, American Public School Law, 3d ed. St. Paul, MN: West
Publishing Compan |